What are you trying to prove?!?!?

GETTING READY FOR THE ESSAY PART I:

Historical Argument, Thesis Statements, and Making Claims.

What is an "argument"?

By the end of the quarter you will grow tired of hearing me ask, "Where is your thesis? What are you trying to prove?" I will ask these questions because all historical essays need an argument.

But what is an argument? Think of it this way. Suppose you were talking about football with a couple of your friends. One of your friends, let us call him Ken, is a devoted San Diego Chargers fan, but does not watch TV very often and does not know they aren't very good. He tells you he thinks the Chargers will go the Superbowl this year. You respond by saying, "Ken, there is no way the Chargers will go to the Superbowl." By making that statement you are asserting a point of view, you are making a "claim." That is the beginning of an argument. You are asserting what you believe to be the truth. Think about it: you make claims everyday. McDonald’s makes terrible hamburgers; the Jerry Springer show is trash; that skirt doesn’t match that shirt. If you were writing an essay, these "claims" would be your thesis statements. (They are admittedly poor thesis statements, but you get the idea!)

In history, your argument is your interpretation of the facts. Presumably you have read historical documents, you have read some books about the subject, and you have reached some conclusions about the meaning of that information. A historical argument is based on those conclusions.

What is a thesis statement?

The thesis statement forms the backbone of any essay. Without a thesis an essay becomes a merciless random bombardment of information. A thesis gives the essay focus and direction. A thesis tells your reader exactly what you are going to attempt to prove in your essay. Your entire essay will revolve around this statement: Everything you mention in the essay should in some way relate to your thesis. Think of it as a "preview" of what the essay is going to be about. A thesis might look like this:

"Although she hosts her own TV show on fashion, Joan Rivers knows nothing about it because she is not a fashion designer, has never studied fashion, and always wears hideous outfits."

If that statement were the thesis of an essay on fashion, you would know what to expect: an essay about Joan Rivers's lack of fashion sense. Also notice the word "because" — an excellent word for thesis statements. You are writing this essay to tell your reader why something is the way it is. (Or, in history, why is was the way it was...)

SAMPLE THESIS STATEMENT RELATING TO HISTORY:

"Although John F. Kennedy made many speeches on Civil Rights, he actually did very little to end segregation because he was concerned about alienating southern voters."

• This statement makes a very bold statement: JFK did little to end segregation. Certainly some people would agree, while others most certainly would not. Still, it advances an argument. It tells readers exactly what the essay is going to prove. That is the central objective of the thesis statement!

SAMPLE THESIS STATEMENTS PERTAINING TO THE 2001 ELECTION:

“George W. Bush won the disputed 2001 election in part because he more effectively managed national media coverage.”

• Again note the word “because.” The whole essay would seek to prove that the reason George Bush won, was because of the way he managed the media—not primarily because of his legal maneuvers before the Supreme Court, nor because of Al Gore’s failings, but because of his “spin-doctoring.”

“Although the 2001 election suggested that the nation was sharply divided along party lines, in reality the election revealed the depth of public apathy towards U.S. politics.”

• Note how this statement begins by acknowledging the opposing view: that the election revealed how partisan the country was.
• Then note how it continues to advance a strong position: the election really showed that Americans were apathetic.

• Also note how this statement focuses on analysis, on finding deeper meaning in the election dispute. It is entirely based on the author’s interpretation of the events.

“Undoubtedly, the Supreme Court’s decision in the 2001 election reflected partisan politics. Nevertheless, the Court’s decision was solidly rooted in American legal tradition.”

• This essay will primarily be about how the Supreme Court’s decision was sound, but note how the thesis begins by conceding some points to the opposition view. It says, “Yes, of course partisan politics were a factor. BUT, the court’s decision was still valid…”
• Sometimes, it is good for thesis statements to acknowledge different points of view in order to refute them. A sophisticated argument recognizes complexity and addresses possible objections.
• The argument is stronger because it addresses potential objections to the argument. If the author argued that the Supreme Court decision was based on legal precedent, but never mentioned the charge that the Court was acting from partisan politics, few readers would be convinced!

“President Clinton deserves the blame for Gore’s failure to win the 2001 election.”

• Makes a very simple, but direct, argument. Nevertheless, the thesis is incomplete because it does not answer the question “why?” Why does Clinton deserve the blame? Because ….

“Al Gore deserves most of the blame for losing the disputed election of 2001. There are three reasons for this. First, his failure to run on the successful Clinton record cost him many votes that he should have won in the first place. Second, his constant changes of image convinced many voters that he would do anything to win. Finally, he handled the recount issue badly. By demanding recounts in only the Democratic counties, rather than statewide, he substantiated Republican charges that he was trying to ‘steal’ the election.”

• Note how this thesis statement is more than one sentence. That is OK! In fact, good thesis statements often require more than one sentence to explain all the main points of the essay. The objective in writing a thesis is to be as clear and specific as possible. In this case, you can anticipate exactly what the argument is going to be—that Al Gore is responsible for his own defeat. And you know why—because of his failure to run on the Clinton record, his image changes, and his handling of the recount issue.

SOME TYPES OF THESIS STATEMENTS TO AVOID:

“Suspense Thesis”:

“In this essay I will discuss technology and economic change in world history.”

• What about it? That’s a mighty big topic, what is your essay going to focus on? I have to read the essay before I know. Be specific: spell out exactly you are talking about.

“Vague Thesis”;

“Technology affected world civilizations in many ways.”

• No kidding! This thesis doesn’t say anything. If you had read absolutely nothing, you could come up with a thesis like this!

“I Feel Thesis” or the “I Think Thesis:”

“I feel like gender roles were unequal.”

• These statements put the focus on the author of the essay, rather than the subject of the essay: gender roles in history. “I feel” and “I think” diminish the force of the argument. AVOID FIRST PERSON!

How do you know??!?

GETTING READY FOR THE ESSAY PART II:

Using Evidence.

Why do I need evidence?

People can make all sorts of claims. I could assert right now that aliens landed in my backyard last night, and you would not believe me. You would ask for proof. That is what evidence is: it is proof that your claim is the right one.

In the last handout, your friend Ken claimed that the San Diego Chargers were going to the Superbowl. To continue the football analogy, in order to prove to Ken that the Chargers will not go the Superbowl, you would have to present him with some supporting evidence. You might tell Ken, for example, that they didn't make it to the play-offs, so they can't possibly play in the Superbowl. Taken together, this is pretty convincing evidence, and Ken would probably have to believe you. That means you've done what you set out to accomplish: you have proved your point.

What does this have to do with history?

The point I made above can be applied to historical essays. In history we have a body of evidence that we interpret to arrive at conclusions about the past. On the last handout, we claimed that the Supreme Court’s decision in the 2001 election “was solidly rooted in the American legal tradition." By itself, this is merely a claim. What you need to do now is add some supporting evidence. And you would want to provide examples that support the overall argument. You would probably discuss previous court cases and legal precedents. You would also want to show how the Court was not overly influenced by partisan politics—the other half of your thesis—by demonstrating that legal interpretation counted for more.

Types of evidence:

For the assignments in this course, your text and the online documents provide the evidence. Say, for example, that you write: “Mesopotamian culture possessed a gloomy outlook not seen in Egyptian culture.” You would want to give your reader some sort of evidence, right? Otherwise, how would your reader know you are not just making this up? You could quote from the “Poem of the Righteous Sufferer” to provide an example:

Babylonian writings reflected a feeling of powerlessness and of despair. The “Poem of the Righteous Sufferer,” for example, begins by saying: “My god has forsaken me and disappeared, / My goddess has failed me and keeps at a distance. / The benevolent angel who walked beside me has departed, / My protecting spirit has taken to flight, and is seeking someone else.”

• Obviously, you cannot discuss everything, so pick your examples carefully. Which best illustrates your point of view? Provide enough background info so a knowledgeable reader (or your professor!) knows what you are talking about, but not so much detail that you lose track of the main idea.

But I don't get it!

GETTING READY FOR THE ESSAY PART III:

“Claim, Data, Warrant”

What is "Claim, Data, Warrant"?

CDW is a way of organizing a paragraph. The “claim” is your topic sentence. The data (or evidence) is the body of the paragraph. And the warrant is the concluding sentence of the paragraph.

So what is the "warrant"?

In the last two handouts, we (1) made claims, and (2) supported those claims with evidence (data). But there is one more crucial component of a good paragraph, the "warrant" or explanation or analysis. This is the hardest part, and takes a lot of practice—but it is very important.

Often the meaning of evidence (such as quotes) seems obvious to us because we are the ones who chose the evidence and we know what we think it means. But do not assume your reader does too! After providing your evidence, you must show your reader how the evidence you have provided proves your point. Another way of thinking about the warrant is this. Think of it as the "conclusion" of your paragraph, such as in the example below:

Claim:

The Neolithic Revolution changed the status and potential of women.

Data/Evidence:

In Paleolithic hunter-gatherer societies, men and women performed different tasks, but maintained a certain level of gender equality. Indeed, women made a vital contribution to the survival of the band, since the food collected by women permitted its survival in times where hunting parties were unsuccessful. Agricultural civilizations, however, were patriarchal. As men took over tasks involving the heavy labor associated with agriculture, such as clearing land and plowing, men assumed a position of primacy in family and community life. Agricultural civilizations were run by men and based on the assumption that men directed political, economic, and cultural life.

Warrant:

As agricultural civilizations developed and became more elaborately organized, the status of women often deteriorated.

As you can see by the above sample paragraph, the warrant serves to bring the paragraph to its logical conclusion. It reminds the reader what the data proves. It ends with a complete thought. Remember: each paragraph should have a single, clearly defined purpose. Use your concluding sentence to bring the paragraph to a close.

Now What?

GETTING READY FOR THE ESSAY PART IV:

From the Paragraph to the Essay

How to write a good, solid paragraph.

1. We have shown how "claims" make excellent topic sentences. In a good essay, your topic sentences should tell your reader exactly what your paragraphs are about. In a really well-written essay, I should be able to read the first sentence of every paragraph and get a pretty good idea of what the essay is about.

2. We have also already seen how crucial evidence is to the writing of history. In a short essay you need to pick and choose which types of evidence to include. Select your evidence carefully--but make sure you have evidence! Also remember to keep in mind the purpose of your evidence: it is there to prove your "claims." If you have a quote or piece of information that does not relate to your thesis or claim, it probably doesn't belong in the essay.

3. We have tried to conclude our paragraphs by writing a "warrant"—a concluding sentence that explains our evidence and summarizes the conclusions of the paragraph.

But how does this relate to the essay as a whole?

Think of your ENTIRE ESSAY as one big claim, data, warrant paragraph.

1. Your "claim" is your thesis. Your thesis tells your reader what your essay is going to prove.

2. Your "data" is in the body of the essay. Make a list of all the points you need to make in order to prove your thesis. These points should form the main ideas of your paragraphs. In fact, these points should be your topic sentences. Using these claims, write your paragraphs according to the CDW model.

3. Your "warrant" is your conclusion. Use your conclusion to summarize the main points of your essay and to explain how all the information you provided in the body of the essay proves your thesis.

Do I have to write "claim, data, warrant" to get an "A"?

I have not been trying to teach you CDW to force you to conform to my writing style. Nevertheless, CDW will help you organize your essay effectively, which will help you get an “A.” It will also help you include in your essays all of the main things I will look for when I grade them:

First, I will look for a strong thesis. Without a strong thesis statement, an essay cannot receive an "A'. If the essay does not make an argument, but instead merely summarizes some developments that happened in the 19th century, the essay will probably not receive higher than a "C."

Second, I will look for evidence. For an essay to receive an "A" it must use the readings effectively to prove its thesis.

Third, I will look for analysis. Does your essay explain your thesis well? Does it analyze the evidence it provides?

Finally, I will look for clarity. If you write in CDW style, this should be no problem.